English subtitles for clip: File:Trond Helge Torsvik-VPRO-The Mind of the Universe.ogv

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Why should anyone become interested in audio jolly. Well you know what I didn't and.

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In general also plate tectonics kind of US important for every single on this planet.

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So we would receive mineral resources where there was drinking water whether it's wine or. Rocks for the road.

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It's all about geology even diamonds and so forth so.

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It's one of the most important ingredients we have in his plan is to get all of you for tourists and the mountains

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and so forth.

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So I can hardly think about a missing which is not real time to get all the down across study all that he was formed in

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the past where we are looking. When you look at mountains in Norway for instance the cell.

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Mountain sexily form some four hundred million years ago.

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So we're looking at the past every day when you look out your window. It is de caressed her stick of the earth.

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It's the curse drakes I think of it. This is why look all planets you know it's to get all of the on the landscape.

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Which is to cut tourist takes also for.

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What made you become so interested in this type of science while it's probably coincidence what you do in life.

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I know when I started studying I I used to prefer mathematics and physics but.

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When I started studying I want to do something outside looked in a catalogue one that had big stick.

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Catalog which subject you want to study and so forth and I saw what I didn't understand.

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It said geophysics it was to A G U K physics understood.

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Sawtelle I'll do Dot so but first geophysics very brode I could be better all of your snog of him but also.

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Just minute he feels actually started first. Taking courses in oceanography but I got a little bored with that.

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So then I switched to what we call geo magnetism and particularly how.

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Not so much about the first one of the field today is that how it's been in the past

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and how it's perceived up in rocks rocks because it's rocks. They preserve how damning that I feel was in the past.

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So that's caught my interest originally. Is there anything specific that you really want to know. Well as a lot.

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I want to know. And of course to change through time when you start off when you know very little you know.

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It's some sort of incremental but the more you.

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That's how I started working maybe just would want a continent and then you want to do more of them

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and then you want to do all of them and then you also want to look beneath them.

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So what you want to know kind of change with time is as small as you learn there are barriers all the time like ten

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years ago many barriers which I know gone and and you're looking for folks for new barriers to solve.

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But anything specific at this moment. At this moment.

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Well what I mean where we were last decade Israeli too to see how do the mantle below the crust interact with the

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plates and so forth. The Dr now. Trying to do something new.

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Again you know climate and pallor climate is very popular and

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but I really want to try to understand how the climate on planet has changed over a let's say the last billion yes that

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the long term variation and not just a short term variation. You know in the last few hundred.

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Yeah so a few million Yes I really want to understand what controls to big packed on and. And that's a big challenge.

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If you go back in history. Could you give a sort of brief history of. In geological terms direct.

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Why does it tend so far you go back to maybe the easiest is to go back to that say Tree hundred million.

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Yes that's very short remember the Earth has four point six billion but if you go back to Tree hundred million.

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Yes we had what many a familiar we had a super continent.

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At that time were most of the continents with just one mass which we called the Pangea.

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And we know very well still things we don't know how that's involved true time so it was one continent

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and then that say about two hundred million. Yes you go to central Atlantic.

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Started starting breaking to supercontinent apart.

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So it was North America

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and Africa departing from it later on in the South Atlantic open a little younger one hundred

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and twenty million yes that's in my part of the world with Norway and.

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In the Northeast Atlanta only started some fifty five million Yes ago so.

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So we do a lot of research to see how did this supercontinent break apart into why did it break apart just even why did

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all the continents assemble into one supercontinent they do that occasionally maybe every half a billion year

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or something to come together and they go apart so that's part of some sort of a long term cyclists on our planet.

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But let's just get back to the history of Earth and what's so important about Earth

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or difference that in terms of our solar system and the other planets.

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Well as medicine but again geology Plate Tectonics is unique.

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It's the only planet we know in the solar system at least the kind of earth like stony like to what we call the to rest

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O. Planets who has plate tectonics. So that makes us different. From from all of them.

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What is Plate Tectonics got to simply got to play that we are Plate Tectonics is kind of simple in some way.

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If it means we have about a dozen big plates many small plates and they move in relation to each other.

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And also where Plate Tectonics all the action should it's on played boundaries where teams goes apart

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and we have magma coming up or when things collide one played Go.

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You need to not only call it's abduction and you can a big county chain earthquakes alone a modern

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but the main thing is all the action you know in terms of seismicity vulcanism

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and so forth is happening on the plate boundaries and. No other planets.

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That I'm aware of into solar system could be on other planets exoplanets but we don't know.

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So we're unique in that way.

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And we're here on Iceland and here especially in Iceland you can really sort of almost experience that

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when it's kind of double interesting because it's sitting on wanted to play boundaries where all the action is sort of

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should be a lot of volcanism but normally. Just to spreading into ocean is beneath sea level but here we are above.

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Dust because.

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It's not just on a plate boundary wetting spread apart

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but we actually have a deep plume coming from very deep in the mountain.

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Which is coming almost vertically up

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and it's interfering with disparate would it would have played boundary have that's got that's why we get is buoyancy

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from beneath and we have this elevation so.

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So I swam and one out of place on the planet are unique in the way dot you see this you see sea floor spreading.

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It's like dry on land you actually see it instead of being in the ocean so Iceland this is very very special.

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And why is plate tectonics so important. Well you know. Well first of all it's visually it's.

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Our landscape it's a rock the result of it but also our natural resources.

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Basically all of what we consume of of minerals oil and gas and so forth.

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Are the product of plate tectonics so without it. There wouldn't be any cars.

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We need something to build these tanks and we need something to fuel it maybe in the future we can have autumn means

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but still you need you need minerals even if you want to turn it to batteries and so forth.

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Yet that's extracted from rocks again and. It's get all a G.

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and Plate tectonics to actually in some way you can you can say.

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Gives us all the resources to do what we want to understand it.

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The strange thing about it is that sort of we are living on a recycling planet in terms of it's continuously changing

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continuously changing and that's why when I said Would you mind yachting with that. Yeah.

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Yeah so it's that the surface in the landscape because of Plate Tectonics is continuously changing of course it's slow

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but let's say over a few hundred million. Yes you have a totally different surface again and.

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When you look at the other planets. Do you see you really do old history in the beginning you know you can see.

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More than four billions years of history because in the early.

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In the early beginning in the solar system plan to reform measure

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and you had heavy bombardment impact you have craters I we were and you see them on other planets

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but on Earth they all gone because everything has been recycled

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and would play to tonic it's being kind of pushed into the mantle when one plate is. Pushed beneath and out of one.

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So you know resurfacing the landscape is changing all the time. Like.

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In one parrot let's say Greenland was totally underwater now it's above water and all this is changing.

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It's a dynamic system all the time. Because of plate tectonics.

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What do I say be just be a static system where everything was stuck where they are.

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You have been studying plates it's honestly a lot of almost. What do we not know about plate tectonics.

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While it's a lot we don't know and. For instance when before.

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Plate Tectonics when it was called continental drift which they're going to propose more than one hundred years ago.

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Various reasons why people didn't like it

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but let's say physicists said for instance all we have no drop what is to drive a mechanism how it is played moving

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around. And it's interesting. Even when Plate Tectonics and late sixty's.

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It's like people stop asking that question why are what are the driving forces.

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And so Plate Tectonics is really just we just look at is a little lead on the planet with just plates

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and we can map them out.

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We can see how fast they're moving and how to collide we can reconstruct them back in time

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but we don't really have a full understanding how this is interacting with the mantle so that's how is to convection in

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the mantle Benita place being important in driving duce things but also

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when slaps are going in there is also a driving force of from Plate Tectonics itself from a slab going in

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and pushing the continents went it so it's this interaction between what is driven from below

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and what is driven from the plate itself which would which we don't really know in detail. We don't know why.

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No we don't know why.

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So that's that's keeps us scientists Bisi you know it's a cool set SEC Korea hostage ribbon you know why.

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It's like it's to life on other planets we want to know why it's just. Happening.

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Is its sound system and if you can read you have to look at the earth.

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I mean you have to corn you know it as if the continents are floating on a sort of heat mass.

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Thank you describe a little bit how thick. Should I imagine.

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Yes consonant Well normally when we talk about crust it differs. And if you are beneath a continent.

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The crust is about thirty five forty kilometer but if you're in the ocean.

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It's only May be well under spreading what you'd Serah the whole mountain is coming up

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but it's much send about five kilometer or so

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but that's not a moving play it's also the upper part of the mantle we call the standards for.

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Makes what we call tectonic plates. So you can say to tectonic plates the continental continent.

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To twenty plates are about that's a tree hundred kilometer or something.

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So that's about to plates and then moving over a part of the mantle because of. The temperature pressure you.

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It's more viscous staff so do use more rigid stiff plates can can move on this amount of material.

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So you can you can think about a mountain it's slowly convecting system over the last time

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but this convection could maybe be in the order of a tree for five centimeter per year.

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So it's a slow grinding process. Now we're here in Iceland and here you see that this is you know.

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And then given how to drink you know. Well you know if you have a little I don't know. If you want some more. It.

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Very good. Is really a long. So we are here in Iceland here it's quite apparent that you know this.

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He just didn't ask coming out there actually. Yeah and when I asked when we.

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Because of this it's unique because it is what we call the Iceland plume. And also how they are linked.

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What to feed back with plate tectonics. What's just been proven so well there is some.

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Like I I slam

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and how why it's another example maybe I was about some might say it was about fifty of these I don't say maybe about

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twenty five of you have these what we call deep plumes who actually come all the way from.

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The very deepest mountable two thousand one hundred kilometer down

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and we can actually followed we can see them we called seismic tomography

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or in that you don't do it using seismology and.

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Iceland is one of these who comes all the way and one of the same kind of outstanding problem.

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How does dece maybe twenty five or Turkey the plumes how. How do they.

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How do they start their journey from the deeper it and how can it influence plate tectonics.

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For instance is also one of the outstanding issues that we're working on but we think we are we.

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We get so little handle on this is that what you call super Filipinos that originally at the moment is not a super

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volcano it's even though it's big and there's a lot of flux in volume but when it started when

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when these what we call hot spots my column.

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Normally in the literature when they start the first time

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when they're wrapped day Devery often linked to us really massive. Popularist you can call them super.

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Will Cain zero but in the end. Signs language we. Call them Large Igneous Provinces or lips that's kind of that and.

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So when when they first started. It's.

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You get a catastrophic now thing of up a mountain and you've got a really big Super Bowl candle

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and I still in the hot spot started like that but that's about sixty million years ago. That went down.

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He didn't wasn't just confined to it to a little island like Iceland actually covered vast areas of Greenland Scottland

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island a little entered in the we didn't show up so it may be had a radius of something like fifteen hundred kilometer

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maybe two thousand kilometer So that that's what we call a super volcano and you do not want to be around.

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When one of these erupts are still of importance for us about it. Some of or it might happen again.

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But let's say in the last five hundred million S.

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and There's only Turkey known episodes and the youngest one you find and in North America.

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It's called the Columbia River basalts about fifty million years old

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but the hot spot it's linked to like Iceland is what we call Yellowstone.

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And often they make some sort of dishonest a scenario if you have another yell of sed that Yellowstone is a rap thing

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again. But Yellowstone is tiny in terms of aerial distribution which produced as Columbia or super volcano.

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Maybe about two hundred thousand square meter.

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For comparison one inside very trying to fifty million years ago was five million square meter and that's

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when actually affected live.

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On only on Earth and maybe ninety percent of all life died because of the super Will Cain so.

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If it happens again it's definitely something to worry about the quiet filings probably have some very violent and.

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Luckily very aware. It's an interesting specific area is diamonds or a science. Yes that.

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And this is kind of linked to the same story we have this. Up I've been working man e S.

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Which is hotspots and super volcano us and try to kind of reconstruct them back in time.

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And when we did that we noticed they came from certain area us. Deep down.

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Maybe started with the dinosaur because I mean yes he's using it now. Yeah yeah so. So Dr Diamond they are so.

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You're going to find I'm in sync continental crust

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and you're sitting at great depths of course it's you need the right pressure

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and temperature to actually get to form a diamond.

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So they are sitting at one hundred eighty two hundred kilometer adapt

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but they are brought up to the surface by something called Kimball lights which which is also.

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It's a flow war material coming from deep it's probably also very deep and then you pick up the diamonds

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and bring them to the surface so on the surface you can if you find it will be called Kimball lights.

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It's a big circle looks like a crater.

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And that's just where all or most of the diamond exploration is because they bring so.

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Kimball I select the elevators of diamonds and they come very fast. Because if you bring a diamond up very slowly.

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It turned into graphite which we use for a pencil and then it has no value and no real value so direct.

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From about one hundred eighty kilometers depth you bring a diamond to the surface. Maybe in three hours.

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So you don't want to be it suggests will come very fast it will be a big splash of water and C O two when when

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when it's brought to the surface but it's a long time. That. Luckily doesn't happen everyday items.

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But in fact you say this filled with diamonds. So my desk and we.

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We know where we should find them and

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and we have an idea where they should be in relation to the mountain for these these hot hot fluxes to bring them up so

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we have a reasonably good idea about where they are and your things you can mind them. Well you know not down there.

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How far do you have to go down. Well you have to go two hundred eighty kilometer if you want to mind.

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I'm in C two but so we say again nature you know is is doing us a favor. It's bringing peace to things to the surface.

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And you also are very deep into a pond you know magnetism. Trying to.

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Establish a new revolution in that you know what body oh you know does your body. Plan to go give what is free.

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Do you explain what these reflections are and what the next was British and should be. Well.

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I always say there are three revolutions and geoscience so far

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and it started in one thousand nine hundred nineteen fifteen with very going to and.

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But he died very unhappy in the twenty's nobody believed them and. You had to wait to one thousand nine hundred sixty S.

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Before. For people to come up this issue again.

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When they had a second revolution off a service oriented internet tell shortly what what his wrist producing was empty.

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If you. Joy of thought about it when nobody of course knows. That OK. Nobody knows.

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Of course what a revolution is are so good to know you just sort of briefly describe it or so. Let me ask this again.

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You're a specialized in pounding mechanism and I want to sort of well bring forth a fortune for Lucian in Johnny.

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What are those revolutions.

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Sort of fresh revolution more than one hundred yes ago about nineteen twelve nineteen fifteen with Vaga and.

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What he suggested if you look at our Today the continents are spread around.

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So what he said once upon a time but he didn't really say in million yes.

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You have to start guessing here he said once upon a time all the continents were together in one super continent

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and he could he actually didn't call it Pangea what you know nest was called all

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but he called it who continent he was German C.

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Said once upon a time to write together and in quite recent time actually.

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And what we called tertiary de de de broken parts but he called it continental drift and they just stopped moving.

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But you know he didn't know about oceans they were never mapped out what would they look like they were just plowing

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through the ocean and driving forces was unknown and so forth that that and that's a real important revolution.

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But to understand the oceans too was not just continents that's why this was called continental drift it was messing

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about oceans.

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But in the early sixty's

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when they had mapped out the ocean they saw from the two miter days Saudi's what we now know it's spreading axis

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between plates and mapped is out.

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So So Def somebody down figured that the might have been magma coming up from the mountain

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and pushing plates aside so done you also had this aspect of ocean they wasn't just continent.

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It was a mechanism and they've been pushing plates apart and you're pushing the oceans making new. Oceanic crust.

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That was in the early sixty's. But it told Revolution.

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What we call plate tectonics was actually in the middle eight sixty S and.

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And that's what play take to instead of continental drift just comes in is moving around.

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It's called plates because it's a mixture of continents and Osi on a crust and they have played boundaries

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and they put the mathematics on to describe that you have a rotation pole somewhere

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and it's rotating would have been you know.

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The last two and so forth and when you got that mathematics on it and you could then you can run it forward.

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I could look at Earth today we know how it's moving I can predict what it would look like and fifty million S.

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or I can predict go back in time what it did look hundred million years ago and so far so that's was the fourth one

236
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but again. Plate Tectonics is what I will call a second emetics here is just describing what these plates.

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Are doing on top but what what I'm interested in what are the driving forces

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and how how just they fit in with nice hot spots and plumes you know is to relationship between them

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and it's more of making a grand Terry maybe in physics.

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You can you know a physicist been dreaming about unifying quantum mechanics with with general relativity.

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You know making it into one grand. You know.

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Terry you know in some way that's what we want to do with it we want to we want to link to full understanding what's

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happening on the surface. What's happening beneath us all these heat and the pollutants and so forth into one unifying.

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Terry. So that's where we end. And counted a name.

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We're put on this program what we call the ninth of dynamics of we get enough into this as well.

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So that's kind of the grand vision. So the sort revolution waltz plate tectonics or.

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What that was the third eye was the third one. And therefore it's gone. To be.

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That's what we used in a month of dynamics. And that's will be when we fully understand this planet.

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Hopefully in my lifetime. Because that's what you want. Yes I want but it's. We still have some way to go.

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Suppose you succeed in doing that. What would that mean in terms of humanity in terms of knowing about the earth.

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What would mean for us. Well out of what I mean so much for. The normal person in the street. I don't know.

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I'm driven by Korea also T. To understand and. Also been interesting in history. I want to see how things change.

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And how it will be in the future. But what has you know enormous practical value for for.

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The ordinary human being that's a different story but we did learn something about.

255
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Well the future of Europe what way can we learn. It it will.

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It everything tells us about the future of the earth and we could have predicted a problem. Do you suffer so.

257
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One from these model we can protect saying that we talk about towns and maybe fifty

258
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and one hundred million US prediction you know so.

259
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So that's why it doesn't have that in the media you know it doesn't have an effect for what's going to happen next.

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Jaron accent or if for what we have doing way we're talking about when a time scale which for most humans is you.

261
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You can't count so much so. But a generous thing is you want to relate it to for example climate.

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OK I'm saying yes the long term climate is why we've got some reasonably good control and that's where we'll.

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We will see how we can understand long term climate because that. Another thing we do not fully understand.

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But we want we have well we live in an ice age and in a now do we have. Basically what we are and in a cold or ice.

265
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House conditions. But that's only happened three times in the last six hundred million S.

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It's very unusual the way we're talking about global warming and we're afraid of the greenhouse gas

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and too much C O two in atmosphere

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but that is actually the normal statements for our planet for the last six hundred million.

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Yes that has been to normal condition much higher C O two from sea levels but a time much higher warmer.

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So we actually live in an judicial time.

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Actually to all region wide the planet goes into an ice age it's still heavily debated. Also among.

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Climate experts so that's something I would kind of try to get a handle on.

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Let's let's recall this you say we are living here.

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That's at what you want to act as I feel like to sort of make that into its story you just say we're in an ice age

275
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but it might be interesting can indeed tell because we're in an ice age and in fact it has already happened.

276
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Let me because you say we are in an ice age what do you mean. Well it's generally it's a cold climate.

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And also generally know C O two in atmosphere because to to to go into a cold climate or an ice age you.

278
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You need to have low C O two atmospheric C O two.

279
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And that's house and we can see of course

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when you are an ice as you find you find in the Glasgow record you you find evidence.

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But as you're finding glacial deposits alter and if you look back in time when.

282
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We have to go back to about three hundred million.

283
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Yes when we had the previous one

284
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and before that it's about forty fifty million years so we know from the Gloucester record when you had these things

285
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and climate scientists would without really knowing the reason would simply say oh we have done because we had low C O

286
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two that I'd like to know why did we. Why why do we have just fluctuation in C O two and you know it.

287
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I find as unsatisfactorily just and said oh we've got an ice age because to C O two level was was low.

288
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You know so you had the conditions to to to get glaciers and so forth and so.

289
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That's something I would like to push you because in fact you're saying we're living in an extra ordinary ordinary time

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we are really living in extraordinary time. And that's something.

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You know in on this debate about manmade climate change should assign a when I try to teach students.

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Whether that is correct on authors problems but I also wanted to leave my lecture room with a full understanding.

293
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We live in a very unique time.

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And this is not how our planet normally was it was much what we lived in greenhouse condition with much higher C O two

295
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levels could have been ten fifteen times higher than what we have now

296
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and we don't really we don't really understand if C O two fluctuation true time is that something you would like to

297
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serve Christ or that's something and I have a. It's very complicated to do it but again.

298
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Plate Tectonics become important we have to know exactly. Because the distribution of continents.

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And oceans through time distribution of where you have subduction sounds and and you. You have volcano us.

300
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As social web because magnetism is an important thing and we have to map it out in detail

301
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and then I have to know I have to know the Paoli Godfrey in super detail have to know where all the played boundaries

302
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Whoa.

303
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How much potential vulcanism can you have

304
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and can we calculate that into two to use it to give an idea about how much C O two is released from this.

305
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So again that needs stream really precise knowledge of how to hug the plates and under distribution of continents

306
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and oceans through time. So that's my big gold and I want to do that for a last belly and yes. Because also.

307
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What we call Precambrian at about seven hundred million.

308
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Yes you go down there are some postulates that actually made the whole earth froze to call it a snowball or it.

309
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Actually dent Tarata even that quatre had to play shows. So that's definitely a very spectacular planet at that time.

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It's controversial to toss some evidence just can happened

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but it again is typical just to say who we had low C O two level to permit just to do this. So. That's my kind of.

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Next goal of say for five five ten years something that I don't need a lot of young. Post-doc Ph D.

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Students have to plan his out so

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when you surprised by let's say just drank just the earth somehow did that you know you can have all those fluctuations

315
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and it's earth survive something. The dust we know die but the problem. That's so interesting about global warming.

316
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Is that it is going quite fast. You know you every ten Yeah you can follow a curve in. And though the variation.

317
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That sense eleven is quite small compared to you know it on the one hundred million.

318
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Yes you had a sea level was more than two hundred mi to hire that it's called quite fast bits

319
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but if we can get law school time we don't know where we can measure at that position we can to do one hundred year we

320
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could be my date rocks maybe just a million Yes or something.

321
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So it's very hard for us to see how fast actually natural processes are compared to what we can match show right now

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since the Industrial Revolution so that I have a feeling the planet is pretty good.

323
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You know how thing itself saving at that dar feedback mechanism if you do something you.

324
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There's a feedback in some system so. So maybe if we are positive it will. Take care of itself unless it goes too fast.

325
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It actually run out of control. It's something you worry or.

326
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I'm not worried about I'm not sleepless about but that's also because many other things on this planet.

327
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You should worry about. I'm not going to ask or. What what.

328
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No but I think that can be overpopulation of running out of resource us and. Sometimes I say you know it. Humans.

329
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Animals normally kill because they have to eat and.

330
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I say humans are probably wanted a fruitless animal you know we sometimes some kill just to kill you know

331
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and I'm more worried about that global warming to be honest. And.

332
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Let's talk a little bit about your institute in the way you say and have your students around

333
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and you have a sort of reputation taking students on a nice trip and make signs nice for.

334
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Yeah but maybe one of the most important for me for me is to.

335
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For educating young and stimulating young post oxen for them to get a grant to me to become a professor themselves so.

336
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So for me it was to social aspect it's not you know you talk to your professor and you close the door

337
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and you don't always been very. To social interaction would students and postdocs so.

338
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So I take them on both Crucis and. Actually we do it at least once a year. And since I'm in Austin.

339
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I would do from Austria to keel in Germany also Copenhagen so but we have conferences

340
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and many times we like to young percent so it's not the old professors there's concerts and a back

341
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and we let a young people run the show and. Feel they're important and we were we always so very social.

342
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And celebrate science also and celebrate science and discuss science

343
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and so forth because the brain never stops working. So. It doesn't switch off at five o'clock.

344
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What about the relation between whiskey and Yalit your tunes you know that's really important minutes.

345
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And says I would train by Scotties get all of this and feel gone it is a very slow.

346
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It is very so social compared to many other sciences. And after a good twelve fourteen hours a day.

347
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So it's good to have a nice single malt whiskey to know.

348
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It's somehow you could say we should know to Earth's history by now.

349
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I mean even studying it for years and years and somehow we do not even seem to be close.

350
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Oh I see I think we get closer. Lisa and what our group are working on I think we met a lot of progress.

351
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A lot of saying.

352
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Only ten years ago I wrote a proposal to solve something and I actually didn't have a clue how to do it

353
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and suddenly out of the blue we. We saw the answers and we moved on and saw.

354
00:38:25,99 --> 00:38:30,68
That's there is a lot of say We don't know a lot of phenomena a lot of studies.

355
00:38:31,37 --> 00:38:35,74
You will never know ever saying and that's done you don't need us any longer.

356
00:38:37,23 --> 00:38:43,93
If we if we know I actually had a professor once who. Very often. Claim to me.

357
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Now I know I was saying and I looked at him and said And if you're retired

358
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and if you know ever say you know what's the point is it's all all this issue.

359
00:38:55,07 --> 00:39:01,55
You don't know who drives us forward and. Careers to drive and science.

360
00:39:03,23 --> 00:39:12,04
You know even seem to have discovered a new continent. That's what I read. Oh did I lost confidence yeah.

361
00:39:12,86 --> 00:39:21,53
Yeah that's kind of. It's a start of a little hobby a really end of the week. We started wondering.

362
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And the Indian Ocean isn't all that. There's a lot of vulcanism and hosp walked and.

363
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Plumes and so forth but we started wondering if they could actually be some continental fragments.

364
00:39:34,43 --> 00:39:37,87
Actually which was buried by these large busts.

365
00:39:37,89 --> 00:39:45,6
So so we discovered the first one and need to Marie to us which is several Cannick island very young.

366
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Only nine million years of love us but we sink now Doris it's partly covering an old continent.

367
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Of continental crust Benita it. And. That can aerated a lot.

368
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For me it was like a hobby project that's all we got

369
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and never got so much media attention because to Sis you know lost continents.

370
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That has some sort of feeling for for people and. Actually got so bad.

371
00:40:16,8 --> 00:40:18,49
Would I was found by journalists

372
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and people wanted to film that I actually had to take three days off I just went home and shocked a phone off. And..

373
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But it was from some. MEMBER I was interviewed by B.B.C. And they wrote a little story and the next day.

374
00:40:34,9 --> 00:40:43,49
I got an e-mail from B.B.C. and They said wow you got one point six million who clicked on this interview with you.

375
00:40:43,51 --> 00:40:49,3
But then it was the bad news. She said but it was only the second highest you will beaten by the Oscars.

376
00:40:49,41 --> 00:40:56,16
Unfortunately it was to Oscar winners that day that she said we. And also in nature.

377
00:40:58,61 --> 00:41:01,71
That they wrote a little review about our paper

378
00:41:01,71 --> 00:41:09,69
and it was to ten most read paper in Nature that year so I remember we were competing with all other sciences medicine

379
00:41:09,69 --> 00:41:17,09
and whatever you know. Sue we were quite proud of that thing. And the explanation.

380
00:41:17,11 --> 00:41:27,2
Well the explanation is send a little complicated but it's not very complicated. Mary chose today it is simple.

381
00:41:27,25 --> 00:41:30,8
Counting Island sitting out in Indian Ocean but.

382
00:41:30,82 --> 00:41:35,48
If we go back in time this little fragments section apart Madagascar which is.

383
00:41:36,12 --> 00:41:40,49
Towards Africa was a little fragments of the mother Gus covered it.

384
00:41:41,9 --> 00:41:49,8
It was one of these plumes we come in and broke his little piece away and then he was later or covered with lava

385
00:41:49,8 --> 00:41:51,56
and it was just parked in the middle of nowhere

386
00:41:52,83 --> 00:41:59,98
but you know there was one island even even even even Darwin had seen that you know say shout.

387
00:42:00,8 --> 00:42:06,67
You know that's that's an island in the middle of the ocean and that's. That's a continental crust piece of fragments.

388
00:42:06,73 --> 00:42:13,91
But it's not fully it's only partly covered by younger a lot of us so that they were actually walking on real ground I

389
00:42:13,91 --> 00:42:14,32
saw.

390
00:42:14,67 --> 00:42:23,33
So in some way that's kind of sport our interest you know we have this say Shell is a little micro continent in the

391
00:42:23,33 --> 00:42:25,21
middle of nowhere. Could it be more do stuff.

392
00:42:25,9 --> 00:42:35,68
And then we also did a similar story for Iceland where so we introduce another complication twice

393
00:42:35,68 --> 00:42:42,59
and not only it's sitting on a on a plate boundaries breading we have a plume coming all the way from the home of the

394
00:42:42,59 --> 00:42:50,52
boundary. But it's also a piece of continent and fragments beneath Iceland as well just to make it very complicated.

395
00:42:51,6 --> 00:42:59,01
It sounds as if the Earth's crust is just sort of cracked piece of you know all kind of other stuff

396
00:42:59,01 --> 00:43:07,02
but it's the sort of percolate I call it a possible you know you have to get all these pieces together

397
00:43:08,73 --> 00:43:15,25
and I mean morally complicated and I mean but interesting.

398
00:43:17,06 --> 00:43:19,81
Yeah OK I'm going to have some I want to assure you

399
00:43:19,81 --> 00:43:26,82
when you say they did it well there's one thing I think I would like to do one not one that's more an explanation I

400
00:43:26,82 --> 00:43:31,18
think and could you maybe sort of disc. Try to describe how this is working.

401
00:43:31,28 --> 00:43:38,4
I mean in terms of OK you have this first consonants and then you have you know it breaks up and things come up

402
00:43:38,4 --> 00:43:41,49
and they go down just in a sort of brief story

403
00:43:41,49 --> 00:43:51,45
and I do that so could you could you try to describe how actually sort of interest of almost a filmmaker a pose how

404
00:43:51,45 --> 00:43:58,79
this is working. Actually from break up. Oh yeah yeah yeah. So you have Yeah we start with the first continent Yeah.

405
00:44:01,05 --> 00:44:11,35
So you know and so well that the way I look at it is when we had this one supercontinents Tunji.

406
00:44:11,37 --> 00:44:19,69
And they question how do you break it. OK so you have these plates together and the way we look upon it.

407
00:44:20,71 --> 00:44:26,92
This is where this heat from plumes coming from from deep. So that.

408
00:44:26,94 --> 00:44:31,31
So the air coming under neat parts of this super continent.

409
00:44:31,94 --> 00:44:36,36
And actually weak and the crust in the next he breaks things apart

410
00:44:36,36 --> 00:44:42,18
and yeah you might have interrupted maybe it's good to start with the core. OK I'm at the end of it.

411
00:44:42,19 --> 00:44:49,51
Let's take go from the inside out. Yeah OK just as a sort of you have an idea. OK so on.

412
00:44:51,5 --> 00:44:56,39
In a very deep mantle on the core on top of the core they're actually there are.

413
00:44:57,06 --> 00:45:06,8
But what we have found are the two areas of of Hotta material that don't like rocks so why are probably very primordial

414
00:45:06,8 --> 00:45:15,11
Nemi from the origin of the planet and. From these from them. Audience of these piles of material.

415
00:45:15,15 --> 00:45:27,14
This is where he's proves develop like to I simply. So and they get triggered by some mechanism. So they start slowly.

416
00:45:27,16 --> 00:45:31,57
Ascending and that's a very slow process that could be twenty to thirty million years.

417
00:45:32,08 --> 00:45:41,2
When when they reach the surface. And they're hotter than normal now. It leads to a catastrophic nothing.

418
00:45:41,67 --> 00:45:48,26
And they find themselves into cracks and so forth and actually breaks plate apart is how we look upon.

419
00:45:48,87 --> 00:45:54,97
How do these plumes are coming slowly are up and they break plates apart.

420
00:45:55,49 --> 00:46:02,82
So that's how we would and that's probably how you broke this. Supercontinent the path because it.

421
00:46:02,86 --> 00:46:09,66
It wasn't didn't break all at once it was in different areas and you can also why did it start there

422
00:46:09,66 --> 00:46:17,17
and not there in the before before it breaks like five million years before that they were always hit by one of these.

423
00:46:17,19 --> 00:46:19,15
These troops which came from there.

424
00:46:19,15 --> 00:46:25,05
So this is where does he see it weakens the litter sphere and breaks to surface plates.

425
00:46:25,28 --> 00:46:31,09
So there you see the interaction of how process in the mantle heat coming and plumes

426
00:46:31,99 --> 00:46:37,57
and how they actually they modified a played boundary to make new played boundaries and break them apart

427
00:46:37,57 --> 00:46:46,54
and start driving it but we don't know all the details but a kind of. And then the feedback back again.

428
00:46:46,54 --> 00:46:47,76
So these things are going on

429
00:46:47,76 --> 00:46:55,51
and then you have material which is which is subducting into the mantle which is slowly sinking.

430
00:46:55,53 --> 00:47:02,54
What we call slabs that's very slow might take hundred fifty million years before it's reached lower

431
00:47:02,54 --> 00:47:08,51
and that could actually be the triggering to disapproves because it's colder material coming down

432
00:47:08,51 --> 00:47:16,87
and it triggers along these margin of these old Ressa was it triggers makes some turmoil instabilities and.

433
00:47:17,12 --> 00:47:28,02
And makes this thing rise but of course all this is modeling is Terry nobody has been. So different opinion on this.

434
00:47:28,33 --> 00:47:34,86
I have my opinion so. That's why I move on and go to climate gate.

435
00:47:34,88 --> 00:47:39,26
And the other thing is could you sort of give the idea of this recycling

436
00:47:39,26 --> 00:47:47,45
and changing continuously changing of the earth's crust and just let's say just service of the earth. Yes so what.

437
00:47:49,08 --> 00:47:52,59
First of all all the sea floor is recycle all the time.

438
00:47:52,59 --> 00:47:59,86
Remember And if you look at planet Earth to try out a planet is water just centrally where you have sea floor all.

439
00:48:00,04 --> 00:48:02,2
Of that get subducted into the mountain.

440
00:48:02,52 --> 00:48:07,29
So the old it's given an example the old A sea floor when you look at a planet today.

441
00:48:07,43 --> 00:48:13,48
It's about one hundred eighty million asses and everything older than that has been recycled

442
00:48:13,48 --> 00:48:15,3
and pushed into the mountain

443
00:48:15,3 --> 00:48:22,54
when it comes to the continents to do as they damn well buoyant they don't really want to be pushed down into the

444
00:48:22,54 --> 00:48:26,28
mountains so the day you see that fact that.

445
00:48:26,29 --> 00:48:32,78
You feel you find mountain buildings like him say India collided with a sea and you.

446
00:48:32,94 --> 00:48:38,48
You see the mountain building to death to deformed rocks. And the structure so.

447
00:48:39,16 --> 00:48:46,66
But the most dramatic it's actually since the plan is to try to use oceans to that.

448
00:48:46,86 --> 00:48:54,03
Get recycled all the time so the oldest one we can look at in the oceans today It's hundred eighteen of a hundred

449
00:48:54,03 --> 00:48:57,00
and ninety min and yet that's tiny and.

450
00:48:57,23 --> 00:49:04,52
It's like I said some less than ten percent of Earth's history so and that makes it trouble for us because

451
00:49:04,52 --> 00:49:07,12
when I make Plate Tectonic model which old

452
00:49:07,12 --> 00:49:14,78
and to in a minute if I have to make up the ocean because I need plates I have to make artificial spreading in some

453
00:49:14,78 --> 00:49:21,64
sort of which makes sense to me so and that will cause us a strong component of Phillip's of him.

454
00:49:21,72 --> 00:49:26,47
We just have to obey certain physical laws and Yamato and so forth

455
00:49:26,47 --> 00:49:33,21
but you are basically a little down beyond the ice when it's older than twenty minutes. If it you're studying.

456
00:49:33,89 --> 00:49:39,41
Recyclability of stone. Yeah yeah. So I said it's a big problem.

457
00:49:39,41 --> 00:49:46,7
So Plate Tectonics is troublesome for a loop Koester is it is recycling all the time. And it's very very hard.

458
00:49:46,91 --> 00:49:52,94
That's why I'm my dream is maybe to understand in some detail that for a billion yes

459
00:49:52,94 --> 00:49:59,98
but of course a lot of that have to make up because all the oceans. Recycle all the time. So I only I left with a.

460
00:50:00,04 --> 00:50:05,62
This one target of planets the continental crust which is deformed in various processes

461
00:50:06,76 --> 00:50:12,12
and that's because that's where I have to see to sink in those two. To reconstruct a planet.

462
00:50:12,13 --> 00:50:14,4
So your plan had a billion years.

463
00:50:14,78 --> 00:50:20,17
Your plan adds I plan a billion yes at least and I think that's about twenty five percent about history

464
00:50:21,11 --> 00:50:28,96
and I think that sets. There are people who try to go further but it becomes very fragmented and. Very little day.

465
00:50:31,84 --> 00:50:37,39
So what about Iceland. Should you imagine this column called Iceland.

466
00:50:37,54 --> 00:50:44,92
Yeah but again it's a little special because normally if if we were on the sea floor now and on them.

467
00:50:45,07 --> 00:50:52,74
It's spreading boundary you would only make crust maybe five ten kilometer SEC And of course.

468
00:50:53,34 --> 00:51:00,8
Iceland is actually much ticket because it has just extra plumes so to sickness here can be extreme up to it's not just

469
00:51:00,8 --> 00:51:07,33
tell it's a sensing it is bubbling beneath you actually mean extreme sick pile of lava which could be maybe up to

470
00:51:08,85 --> 00:51:15,32
twenty five forty kilometers some plans of it's actually almost like continental crust because you got so much input a

471
00:51:15,32 --> 00:51:24,65
lot of it has been piling on top in the top so so say hey you have a very very very sick pile of lava. But of course.

472
00:51:24,67 --> 00:51:28,34
In areas where you have to rifting today.

473
00:51:28,36 --> 00:51:37,14
Not fall down day you're do have bubbling lava you know just waiting to explode

474
00:51:37,14 --> 00:51:45,07
and decompression come up so you sometimes call it the pumping station you sometimes call it the plumbing. Yeah.

475
00:51:45,08 --> 00:51:53,31
Because well it's it's a very complicated system of the way you have much rest of our own chamber and.

476
00:51:53,78 --> 00:51:59,28
You don't always know how it's going to find its way to the surface but here in Iceland where.

477
00:52:00,04 --> 00:52:04,04
We do a pretty good where the dome and central Canucks are

478
00:52:04,04 --> 00:52:09,19
and you know that's where you can see that on a good Trammel fields

479
00:52:09,19 --> 00:52:15,52
and they can use that to turn it into electricity so. That's what I do with them but look.

480
00:52:16,19 --> 00:52:25,82
Most people wouldn't build a power station on top of all kind of but you know they do it. Used to. Well it's.

481
00:52:26,12 --> 00:52:30,61
Iceland is it. It's their life.

482
00:52:30,68 --> 00:52:38,19
You never know what's going to happen some but they have experienced it from towers and you know it is island

483
00:52:38,91 --> 00:52:47,35
and used to it and it's still prospecting but again you see they take advantage so Plate Tectonics.

484
00:52:47,37 --> 00:52:50,38
Because you have his height. Tell me a gradient would profit and.

485
00:52:50,78 --> 00:52:59,43
You know groundwater reaching very fast two hundred degrees. So it's interesting about normal. If you were.

486
00:52:59,45 --> 00:53:00,04
And Norway

487
00:53:00,04 --> 00:53:05,36
or in a normal place you would have to drill one kilometer to get to target a degree you know it's got talk to

488
00:53:05,36 --> 00:53:06,71
when you drill down.

489
00:53:06,73 --> 00:53:16,5
It's kind of normal gradient it's total degrees per kilometer but in places said I drilled two hundred metres

490
00:53:16,5 --> 00:53:20,93
and it was two hundred fifty degrees so. You get an idea.

491
00:53:20,94 --> 00:53:32,03
There are some heat sources down there which is that's how we benefit. Yes so we benefit. OK All right.

492
00:53:32,3 --> 00:53:38,6
That's all there. My my imagination Yeah. So it's where the crest fell five kilometers.

493
00:53:38,61 --> 00:53:41,87
Yeah down to a value so you know yes it's already rest.

494
00:53:41,94 --> 00:53:48,74
Yeah yeah because you're very close on plenty of the other way you're to know your story

495
00:53:48,74 --> 00:53:56,78
and you know it's you know it's sad will be more around and this is just it's more into surface

496
00:53:56,78 --> 00:53:59,31
when it's it's going through decompression and.

497
00:54:00,04 --> 00:54:06,83
And a very deep for it's just some slowish more it's for probably a few hundred degrees hotter.

498
00:54:07,76 --> 00:54:13,41
So it's just can't be too hot to see if you if you're a diamond to bring them up.

499
00:54:14,62 --> 00:54:22,67
You cannot come with it if you put a diamond in to use. You know in a live Will Cain or you will ruin it.

500
00:54:22,76 --> 00:54:24,45
Your dad will research it has to be.