File:Embodied cortical neurons show significantly improved performance in "Pong" when embodied in a virtual game-world.jpg

English: "399 test-sessions were analyzed with biological replicates: 80-CTL (n = 6), 42-RST (n = 20), 38-IS (n = 3), 101-MCCs (n = 9), 138-HCCs (n = 11). Significance bars show within-group differences denoted with ∗. Symbols show between-group differences at the given timepoint: # = versus HCC; % = versus MCC; ˆˆ = versus CTL; @ = versus IS. The number of symbols denotes the p value cutoff, where 1 = p < 0.05, 2 = p < 0.01, 3 = p < 0.001, and 4 = p < 0.0001. Boxplots show interquartile range, with bars demonstrating 1.5× interquartile range, the line marks the median, and ▲ marks the mean.

(A) Schematic of how neurons may engage in the game-world under active inference denoting a gradient flow on variational free energy, expressed in terms of neural activity minimizing prediction errors. ε is prediction error, ξ represents a precision-weighted prediction error. Precision can be regarded as a Kalman gain in Kalman filtering; ‘a’ corresponds to action. (B–D) Experimental groups according to time point 1 (T1; 0–5 min) and time point 2 (T2; 6–20 min). (B) Average performance between groups over time, where only experimental (MCC: t = 6.15, p = 5.27−08 and HCC: t = 10.44, p = 3.92−19) showed significant improvement and higher average rally length against all control groups at T2. (C) Average number of aces between groups and over time, only MCC (t = 2.67, p = 0.008) and HCC (t = 5.95, p = 2.13−08) differed significantly over time. The RST group had significantly more aces compared with the CTL, IS, MCC, and HCC groups at T1 and compared with the CTL, MCC, and HCC at T2. Only MCCs and HCCs showed significant decreases in the number of aces over time, indicating learning. At T2 they also showed fewer aces compared with the IS group, but only the HCC group was significantly less than CTL. (D) Average number of long rallies (>3) performed in a session. At T1, the HCC group had significantly fewer long rallies compared with all control groups (CTL, IS, and RST). However, both the MCC (t = 5.55, p = 2.36−07) and HCC (t = 10.38, p = 5.27−19) groups showed significantly more long rallies over time. By T2, the HCC group displayed significantly more long rallies compared with the IS group. The HCC group also displayed significantly more long rallies compared with all CTL, IS, and RST control groups. (E) The average distance that the paddle moved during a session was found to have no obvious relationship with average rally length as the IS control groups showed a higher movement than the experimental groups, while CTL and RST were lower. As such, the observed learning effects are not likely due to stimulation, leading to increased activity of paddle movement.

(F) Distribution of frequency of mean summed hits per minute among groups shows obvious differences; scale bar shows the probability the number of hits in the given minute under that condition."