File:Coralloids & cave boxwork (Wind Cave, Black Hills, South Dakota, USA) 6.jpg
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[edit]DescriptionCoralloids & cave boxwork (Wind Cave, Black Hills, South Dakota, USA) 6.jpg |
English: Coralloids & cave boxwork in South Dakota, USA.
Boxwork is a scarce cave feature characterized by a network of intersecting veins projecting from cave walls or ceilings. Boxwork veins are typically composed of calcite, but quartz and gypsum boxwork have also been reported. Wind Cave in South Dakota’s Black Hills is the best locality on Earth for seeing abundant, well-developed cave boxwork. Wind Cave is developed in the Lower Mississippian Pahasapa Limestone. Early in the geologic history of Wind Cave, the rocks were attacked by sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and became decomposed, leaving a residual, crumbly, sandy-like material. Veins in the limestone bedrock were originally gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O - hydrous calcium sulfate), which is immune to sulfuric acid attack. The result was gypsum veins sticking out from cave walls. These projecting gypsum veins were later replaced by calcite (CaCO3 - calcium carbonate). The boxwork seen here is associated with coralloids, which are pustulose to nodulose structures in caves. They are also known as knobstone and cave popcorn. There are multiple proposed origins of knobstone, including: 1) water seeping through cave bedrock and through cave popcorn itself 2) thin films of water flowing over wall irregularities 3) splash from dripping water 4) water moving by capillary action from pools into walls 5) condensation water 6) aerosols Locality: Wind Cave, southern Black Hills, southwestern South Dakota, USA Site geology synthesized from: Palmer, A.N. 2007. Cave Geology. Dayton. Cave Books & Cave Research Foundation. 454 pp. A.N. Palmer (pers. comm., 2011) |
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Source | https://www.flickr.com/photos/47445767@N05/52957284539/ |
Author | James St. John |
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This image was originally posted to Flickr by James St. John at https://flickr.com/photos/47445767@N05/52957284539. It was reviewed on 7 June 2023 by FlickreviewR 2 and was confirmed to be licensed under the terms of the cc-by-2.0. |
7 June 2023
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Camera manufacturer | Canon |
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ISO speed rating | 250 |
Date and time of data generation | 19:46, 17 August 2010 |
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Orientation | Normal |
Number of components | 3 |
Horizontal resolution | 180 dpi |
Vertical resolution | 180 dpi |
Software used | Adobe Photoshop Elements 20.0 (Macintosh) |
File change date and time | 06:19, 5 June 2023 |
Y and C positioning | Co-sited |
Exif version | 2.21 |
Date and time of digitizing | 19:46, 17 August 2010 |
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Image compression mode | 3 |
APEX shutter speed | 5.90625 |
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APEX exposure bias | 0 |
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Scene capture type | Standard |
Lens used | 6.2-18.6 mm |
Date metadata was last modified | 02:19, 5 June 2023 |
Unique ID of original document | 3A0519CA0B87391FC2F2FA6147C08239 |